आफ्नै लेखनको पुनरवलोकन
3 months ago
Sunday, May 6, 2012
Bhaktapur through my eyes...
Friday, April 27, 2012
"म को हूँ???"
मानिस जन्मनुको एउटा उद्देश्य हुन्छ, त्यो पुरा हुनको लागि ऊ बाच्नुपर्छ र त्यसैगरि म आफ्नो उदेश्यलाई पच्छयाउदै बाँचिरहेको छु ।
सन् १९८७, २४ जनवरीको दिन भारतको दार्जीलिङ्गमा मैले मेरी आमाको न्यानो गर्भबाट बिदा माग्दै यो चिसो संसारमा आफ्नो पहिलो सास लिएँ । बालकहरु रुँदै जन्मन्छन्, त्यो सुन्दा अझै पनि मलाई अचम्भ लाग्छ । बैज्ञानिक तरिकाले यसलाई अर्कै रुपमा व्याख्या गरिन्छ, तर रुँदै जन्मेको बालकलाई सम्झदा भने, सायद यो संसारको पिड़ालाई उनिहरु पहिले नै महसुस गर्छन् होला जस्तै लाग्छ । आफु सधैं खुसी रहन खोज्ने यो संसारको पिड़ा सायद हामी भन्दा पहिले नै थाहा पाउँछन् उनिहरु । त्यसैगरि यो दुःखदायी संसारलाई अगाँल्न, मैले आफ्नो पहिलो सास फेर्दा रुँदै आए । तर आजको दिनसम्म मलाई अफसोस छैन कि म यहाँ छु, निकै उदेक तरिकाले अघि बढेको छ मेरो जीवन ।
म शमूएल छेत्री, नाम उच्चारण गर्न कतिपय बुढा–पाकालाई अप्ठयारो लाग्छ रे ! मेरो हजुरबुवाले राखिदिनुभएको यो नामलाई बुझाउन कहिलेकहिँ हम्मे हम्मे पर्छ । त्यसैले यसलाई सरल पार्न “सामेल” हो मेरो नाम” भन्ने गरेको छु । हाम्रो बसोबास सुरुका दिनहरुमा भारतको मंग्पु भन्ने ठाउँमा थियो । त्यबेला मेरो हजुरबुवा (बुवा पट्टिको) पनि हामीसंगै हुनुहुन्थ्यो, मलाई खुब माया गर्नुहुन्थ्यो उहाँले । रोमको इटालीमा दोस्रो विश्व युद्धको समयमा उहाँले आफ्नो एउटा खुट्टा गुमाउनु भएको थियो ।
कहिलेकहिँ त्यो खुट्टाले, उहाँलाई धेरै तखलिफ दिन्थ्यो । बृद्ध अवस्थामा त्यो दुखाईलाई उहाँले कसरी सहनुहुन्थ्यो त्यो अहिले सम्झदा मन चस्स घोच्छ । उहाँ कहिलेकहिँ घुम्न जानु हुन्थ्यो, मलाई संगै लैजान भुल्नुहुन्नथ्यो “अरेन्ज बोइज” किन्नलाई पसलतिर बढेको उहाँको कदम देख्दा म दङ्ग पर्थे । एक रुपयाँको चार वटा मिठाई मलाई थमाउनु भएपछि मैले खाएर रमाएको देख्दा उहाँको चेहरा उज्यालो हुन्थ्यो । सायद त्यो क्षणमा आफ्नो सबै दुखाई भुलेर मसंगै त्यो मिठाईको रसमा उहाँ भुल्नुहुन्थ्यो होला । म तीन बर्षको हुदाँ हजुरबुवाले हामी सबैलाई छोडिजानुभयो । एउटा छहारी गुमेको अनुभव गर्छु आज पनि । उहाँलाई दफनाएको बेलाको तस्बिर हेर्दा ती दिनहरुको सम्झना ताजा भई आउँछ, आँखा रसाउँछ ।
हामी मंग्पुमा हुदाँनै हाम्रो घरमा एउटा नयाँ सदस्य पनि थपियो, मेरो भाई जोएल मनोहर, जोएल नाम चाहिँ हजुरबुवाले राखिदिनुभएको । भाई जन्मदाको रमाइलो घट्ना छ, दार्जीलिङ्गको अस्पतालमा जब भाईलाई लिएर आमाको छेऊमा डाक्टरहरुले राखिदिए, त्यो बेलामा मैले, “मैले यो नर्सको छोरालाई किन यहाँ राखेको, नर्सलाईनै देऊ” भनेर खुब रोएँअरे, मलाई यो घट्ना थाहा छैन तर आमाले भन्नुहुन्छ कहिलेकहिँ अनि हामी दुई भाई हाँस्छौं ।त्यो बेलामा मैले उसलाई यस्तो भने पनि अहिले हाम्रो जोडी देखेर आमा, बुवा लगाएत सबै चकित हुन्छन् । सानो बेला देखिनै हामी संगै खेल्थ्यौं, अहिले पनि मलाई सम्झना छ, एकदोस्रा भए हामीलाई अरु कोहि चाहिन्दैनथ्यो । अहिले पनि त्यस्तै छ र पछि सम्म रहिरहोस् ।
त्यसपछि हामी दार्जीलिङ्ग बजारमा नै स¥यौं । सिंहमारीमा माइलाबाजेको घरमा एउटा कोठा र एउटा भान्सा भाडामा लिएर बसेका थियौं । निकै दुःख थियो त्यसबेला, तर बुवाले त्यसको महसुस हामीलाई कहिल्यै हुनदिनुभएन । हजुरबाको छहारी हराए पनि बुवाको छत्र–छाँयामा बस्न पाउँदा त्यो दुःख त थियो कि थिएन थाहै पनि पाएनौं हामीले । त्योे बेलादेखि मेरो पढाई पनि सुरु भयो र मलाई त्यहीको शिशुस्यार केन्द«मा भर्ना गराइयो, सानैदेखि स्कूल जान मलाई साह्रै गाह्रो लाग्थ्यो, स्कूल जाने समय भयो कि, मुख अँध्यारो बनाएर आँखाभरि आँशु निकाल्थे । त्यहाँका शिक्षिकाहरु पनि माया गर्नेनै हुनुहुथ्यो, तरै पनि स्कूल भनेपछि, अँह ठयाम्मै जान मन नलाग्ने । पाँच बर्षको उमेरमा हामी दार्जीलिङ्गबाट खरसाङ्ग आयौं । त्यहाँ मलाई स्कूलमा भर्ना गरियो तर पनि स्कूल भने जान मन नलाग्ने नै थियो । बरु घरमा बस्न रुचाउँथे, बिस्तारै बानि पर्दै गयो र स्कूल जान थालें ।
बदमासीमा पनि कम थिइन म, अरुको अगाडि त्यति नबोल्ने तर काम चाहिँ बिगारिहाल्ने, मेरो बानि । केहि नौलो समान त मेरो हातमा “बादरको हातमा नरिवल” भन्ने जस्तै हुन्थ्यो । टाऊकोमा दुईवटा चक्र भएको मान्छे अलि चकचके हुन्छ भन्थे, म चाहिँ अलि बढीनै थिएँ । तर ठूलो चोट पटक चाहिँ कहिले लागेन, काम बिगार्न भने चाहिँ सिपालु । सानै देखि धेरै माया पाएर पनि हो की ?
कहिलेकहिँ यस्तै लाग्छ । बुवाको पिटाई पनि धेरैनै खाइन्थ्यो । एक पटक “आशिकि कट” भनेर कपाल काटेर आएको, बुवाले घरदेखि हिर्काउदै मेरो कपाल काटेको ठाउँसम्म लैजानुभएको छ । त्यो कुरा मलाई अझै झलझली याद आउँछ । सायद त्यसैले होला अहिले मलाई कपाल काट भन्यो भने काट्न मन नलाग्ने । जेहोस् बाल्यकालको त्यो चञ्चलपनले मलाई जवानीमा खुब रुवाएको छ ।
कक्षा तीनसम्म हामी खरसाङ्गमा बस्यौं र तयसपछि बुवाको कामले गर्दा हामी काठमाण्डौंमा आयौं । शुरुमा आउँदा शहर कहिले नदेखेको, हवाईजहाजहरु आफ्नै टाउकोमाथिबाट उडेको जस्तो देखिने साथै यत्ति धेरै मोटरहरु देख्दा त अर्कै लोक पुगको भान भएको थियो । बिस्तारै, यो जीवनले अर्कै मोड लिन थाल्यो, शहरी बसोबासो, जीवनशैली, लवाईखुवाईले मेरो जीवनलाई प्रभाव पार्न थाल्यो । अँन्धकारतिर जाँदै थियो मेरो जीवन । उज्यालोलाई पछयाउदैथिएँ तर त्यो उज्यालो त कृत्रिम रहेछ । बिस्तारै स्कूलका दिनहरु अघाडी बढ्दै थिए, मेरो जीवन पनि शहरका गल्लीहरु जस्तै साँघुरिदै थियो । शुरुवात चुरोटबाट भयो । कक्षा ७ मा हुँदा बाटोमा बलिरहेको चुरोटको ठूटालाई खुसुक्क टिपेर गल्लीतिर भागि मुखमा लगाई तानें । धुवा मुखको बाटो हुँदै स्वास नलिमा पुग्दा एक्कैछिन त असहय पिड़ा भयो, ५– १० मिटन खोकें अनि चुइगम खाँदै घरतिर लागें, यो मेरो दोस्रो पटक थियो चुरोटसंगको अनुभव, पहिलो पटक कक्षा तीनमा हुँदा खरसाङ्गमा तानेको धुवाँले मेरो आमाको टुपिबाट धुवाँ निकालिदियो र पाइपको पिटाईले गर्दा मेरो पनि कानबाट धुवाँ निस्कनेगरि मरम्मत भएको थियो । दिनहरु बित्दै गए त्यस्तै पढाई पनि सकिन्दै गयो तर परिक्षामा चाहिँ उतिर्ण हुँदै अघि बढ्दै गए । साथ–साथै चुरोटको मात्रा पनि बढ्दै गयो र कक्षा ८ मा मलाई रक्सि चाख्ने रहर जाग्यो, “एक पटक त हो नि” भन्दै मुखमा हाली हालें त्यो बेलामा के थाहा, एक पटक मुखमा गाडेपछि पूरै डुबिने रहेछ भनेर । बानि परिसकेपछि बल्ल याद आयो एक पटक भनेको त दिनको एकपटक भइसकेछ । तर भर्खर जवानी चड्दै गरेको उमेरमा घरबाट लुक्दै भए पनि चुरोट र रक्सि खाइयो त्यही सुरमा झगडा पनि गरियो । कहिले आफ्नो शरीरभरि कुटाईको डाम लिएर घर आइयो त कहिले पाएको बेलामा अरुलाई बजाएर पनि आइन्थ्यो । तातो रगत छिटो उम्लिने अनि फेरि काम बिग्रिहाल्ने । कक्षा ११ सम्म पुग्दा त गाजा, चरेस, खौरो हिरोइन सबैको कुलतमा फसियो । अरुले भन्छन् साथीको संगत नै नराम्रो तर म भन्छु, म आफै नराम्रो । चाहेको भए त्यो एक पटक नै मेरो अन्तिम पटक हुनसक्थ्यो तर सायद जीवनले केहि सिकाउँन चाहदैथियो त्यस समयमा मलाई । प्लस टुमा तीन बर्षसम्म उतिर्ण हुन नसकेपछि, बल्ल उतिर्ण भई स्नातकमा भर्ना भए । बाह्र सकिएको दोस्रो सालदेखि मैले आफ्नो जीवनलाई केलाएर हेरें, अँन्धकार बाहेक केहि देखिएन ।
कुलतले मलाई यसरी पक्रिएको थियो कि, म आफैले आफैंलाई चिन्न छोडिसकेको थिएँ । “म को हुँ ?” यो प्रश्न नै जीवनको एउटा ठूलो पर्खाल बनि मेरो सामु उभिएको थियो । आफैलाई अँन्धकारबाट उज्यालोमा ल्याई फेरि एक पटक आफ्नो मुहारलाई हेर्न चाहन्थें । यहिँ चाहनाले मलाई प्रेरणा दियो र ति सबै नराम्रा बानिहरु छोडि, म ज्यातितर्फ बढ्न लागे । बाटो निकै कठिन थियो, जब शरीरले ती थोक माग्दथियो, तब आफुलाई रोक्नलाई, मैले आफुले आफैंलाई ढोका बन्दगरि कैद गरेर राखें । बिस्तारै एक महिना दुई महिना हुँदै तेस्रो महिनामा म केहि हदसम्म आफ्नो शरीरको भागलाई काबुमा राख्न सक्ने भएँ र अन्ततः मैले त्यो अँध्यारो गल्लीलाई सधैंको लागि त्यागेर फराकिलो र उज्यालोले भरिएको बाटोमा आफ्नो कदम राखें ।
७ वर्ष पछि उज्यालोलाई अनुभव गर्दा आफैमा म गर्ब गर्न सक्थे । मेरो जीवनको परिवर्तनलाई नजिकबाट मैले आफैलाई नियाँलेर हेरें, तब मेरो जीवनको पनि केहि उदेश्य रहेछ, मेरो केहि जिम्मेवारी रहेछ, जो मैले निभाउन सकेको रहेनछु । मेरा केहि यस्ता पलहरु रहेछन् जो मैले समयमा नै बुद्धि नपु¥याएर गुमाएको रहेछु । तर अब फेरि त्यो बाटोलाई कहिल्यै फर्केर नहेर्ने दृढ संकल्प लिई अघि बढिरहेको छु, एउटा नयाँ आशा र नयाँ उमंगको साथमा ।
Monday, April 23, 2012
बिहानी
रातको त्यो कालो बादल छाएको, टलछ कि भनि हेर्दै
किरणको आशमा पल्लो छेउमा एक्लै म कठ्यांग्रिदै ||
आफ्नो लागि केहि बनाउछु भनि,आफ्नो पालो कुर्दै
डांडाको त्यो लामो यात्रा, आफै नै एक्लै चढ़दै ||
पहिलो आभाष संगै चिर-बिर आवाज मेरो कानमा परेको
एसो विचार्दा लाग्छ, आएछ कि क्या रे मेरो पनि पालो |
मलाई अँध्यारोले ढाके पनि, अब रहदैंन त्यो डरलाग्दो
शितल बतास संगै आउछु, अंगाली आफैमा उज्यालो ||
खुशीको मुस्कानहरु लीई, छर्न ती'लाई सबैको माझमा
हिमचुलीको शीरमा देखा पर्छु,एउटा रत्न उसको ताजमा |
सबै अन्धकार हटाई, एउटा नयाँ पलको सुरुवात गर्ने होडमा
गज़बको कुरा बोकी आउदछु, पहिलो पहरको मोडमा ||
Monday, July 11, 2011
Purva Mimansa
The Mimamsa philosophy is also very ancient, and the Mimamsa Sutra by Jaimini was written about the 4th century BC. This text begins with the subject of dharma, which the Vedas consider the means most conducive to the highest good. Dharma transcends sense perception, because the senses only perceive what exists in the present; dharma in the Mimamsa philosophy has a metaphysical reality that carries into the future.
The soul also transcends the body, senses, and mind, being omnipresent, eternal, and many. In Mimamsa the soul is the agent that causes all movement of the body. Like in Vaishesika, salvation occurs when the fruits of all good and bad actions are exhausted, and the generation of new effects is stopped. However, in Mimamsa Vedic prayers, rituals, and sacrifices are emphasized as the means of achieving this. Women as well as men were allowed to perform sacrifices, but Sudras were still forbidden. In the ancient Mimamsa philosophy the experience of happiness in heaven was the ultimate goal.
Mimamsa is based on the revelation in the Vedas, which are considered as eternal as the world. The metaphysics of this ethics even comes close to replacing God as the source of all action that governs the universe. Essentially everything is determined by character (dharma) or lack of it through the law of karma or action with its consequences. Not only is the soul as the agent of action real, but the action itself is a spiritual reality that transcends space and time, determining the nature of the universe. This unseen force is called apurva, which means something new, extraordinary, or unknown.
Thus dharma or action (karma) supports the universe. If it is ethically right, it produces enjoyment; if it is wrong, then suffering is experienced. This force (shakti) of dharma or karma is extraordinary and unseen. The universe, being eternal, is not created by this force, but it is shaped by it. A unity to this universal force is posited to control and guide individuals in a single cosmic harmony.
Yet humans are free and determine their own destiny by their actions. The karma from past actions does not limit free choices but is like capital that can be spent in various ways as it is resolved. The soul usually carries a mixture of good and evil consequences, and these may cancel each other. Obligations are actions which must be performed, or one gets demerit, though there is no merit for doing them. Prohibited actions if done also cause demerit, but if avoided likewise do not give merit. Optional actions may produce merit or demerit according to their consequences. Focusing primarily on the spiritual effects of rituals, the Mimamsa philosophy relies on the Dharma Sutras for guidance in worldly ethical questions.
The Vedanta school complements Mimamsa's focus on the Vedas and sacrifices by illuminating the knowledge of the Upanishads as the "end of the Vedas," which is what Vedanta means. The Vedanta Sutra, written between the 500 and 200 BC by Badarayana, is also called the Brahma Sutra since it discusses knowledge of Brahman (Spirit) and sometimes Shariraka Sutra because it concerns the embodiment of the unconditioned self. The Vedanta Sutra attempts to clarify the meaning of the Upanishads and is rather terse, but it has been made famous by the commentaries written by the great Vedanta philosophers of the middle ages - Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva.
If the way of action derives from the Mimamsa theory of karma, Vedanta suggests a way of knowledge by the soul of Spirit. The first chapter of the Vedanta Sutra describes Brahman as the central reality and creator of the world and the individual souls. The second chapter answers objections and explains the world's dependence on God and its evolution back into Brahman. The third chapter suggests ways of knowing Brahman, and the fourth chapter indicates the rewards or fruits of knowing this Spirit.
Badarayana is traditional in that he believed knowledge comes from scripture (sruti) and other authorities (smriti), though sruti as revelation is identified with perception and smriti as interpretation with inference. Scripture refers to the Vedas and smriti to the Bhagavad-Gita, Mahabharata, and Laws of Manu. Reason for Badarayana must conform to the Vedas, but it is nonetheless subordinate to intuitive knowledge, which can come from devotion and meditation. Brahman as Spirit is considered the light of the soul, which is also eternal, though Brahman is distinguished from the intelligent soul and the unintelligent material things.
As in Mimamsa individuals are responsible for their own actions and thus determine their own happiness or suffering. The soul is affected by pleasure and pain, but the highest Lord is not. Injunctions and prohibitions exist because of the connection of the soul with the body. Ethical action helps the soul attain a body fit for knowledge of Brahman, which then may be attained through service, renunciation, and meditation. Meditation on the highest yields unity with the infinite and knowledge of Spirit (Brahman), enabling one to stop producing karma and end the cycle of karma and reincarnation.
Badarayana combined earlier views of Brahman as indeterminate intelligence and a definite personal Lord. While developing itself in the universe, Brahman is still transcendent. Though Brahman is in individual souls, it is not polluted by their defects. Human purpose comes through knowledge of Brahman, which also results in bliss and the nullification of works (karma). To obtain knowledge one must be calm and in control of the senses. Works can be combined with knowledge, but those performing them must not be overcome by passion. Knowledge may also be promoted through special acts such as prayer, devotion, and fasting. Meditation, though, should focus not on symbols of the soul but the reality. Through immobile meditation, thoughtfulness and concentration are increased, and meditation needs to be practiced up to death. By resolving karma through knowledge, oneness with Brahman is attained. At death the liberated soul is released from the body and does not return to another.
Introduction:
The word “Mimamsa” mean “Investigation, inquiry or Discussion”. It’s basically the proper way of interpretation of Vedic text, that also the earlier portion of Vedas, so it is also called Purva Mimamsa. It is also known by Dharma Mimamsa because it is an inquiry to an Dharma established by Vedas. Another name for it is Karma Mimamsa i.e. it describes the importance of sacrificial activities in attaining the pure Dharma as the good.
It is one of the school of thoughts with in Hindu Philosophy. We have other schools of thoughts with in Hindu Philosophy namely : Vedanta, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Samkhya and Yoga.
Mimamsa explain how a human being can achieve the mysterious, transcendent power produced by a correctly performed sacrificial ritual, not through the action of gods. The results of the sacrifice often come after the death of the person performing the ritual.
“Theory of Karma” is guided by Mimamsa Philosophy. “Karma” means “deeds”, “act” or “work”. Mimamsa is one of the school of thoughts with in Hinduism which gives importance to ‘theory of Karma’. This theory states that good actions produce good fruit, evil actions produce evil fruits. Every journalist seems necessary to be guided by karmayoga which holds that “when duty is performed in a spirit of dedication to god it becomes the cause of emancipation.”
“Morality, fair play, ethics and justice are the basis of karmayoga” (Bodhi pp 30). This is the evidence that why both western and eastern world have given so much importance to fair play as canon of a journalism.
Application dimension of Mimamsa Ethics:
As said by Chanakya, the practical use of Mimamsa is: it does good to mankind, makes one’s intelligence, Buddhi, settled in the midst of pleasure and pain and makes one expert, visarada, in wisdon (prajna), in speech (vakya) and in action (kriya)”. So developing a code of ethics for journalist and other media professionals based particularly on Mimamsa Philosophy seems not only rational, it also seems more practical.
Here, i claim that the present insecurity among the media professionals in Nepal, where media professionals are being attacked, would have been prevented if everybody had understood the ethics of Mimamsa and applied in their professional deeds.
Here, we can say that the (Vakya) language used in media outlet also determines the ethical standards of media. For example when a journalist is reporting about physically impaired person, using the words like ‘Andho’, ‘Bahiro’ or ‘Langado’ is unethical. Instead we can be ethical by using words like ‘Dristibihin’ for blind person.
Mimamsa will take a journalist action of exposing the name of culprit ethical if the culprit involvement in the crime is confirmed. As said earlier ‘ evil action will produce evil fruits’, culprit should be punished for his/her crime or harm deed to other. But what Unethical media do it just publish the name of the suspects and create the environment of hostility with the third party, followed by attack in the media.
Conclusion:
Hence we can maintain the ethical standards of media through the proper use of our language and action according to the Mimamsa Ethics.
The soul also transcends the body, senses, and mind, being omnipresent, eternal, and many. In Mimamsa the soul is the agent that causes all movement of the body. Like in Vaishesika, salvation occurs when the fruits of all good and bad actions are exhausted, and the generation of new effects is stopped. However, in Mimamsa Vedic prayers, rituals, and sacrifices are emphasized as the means of achieving this. Women as well as men were allowed to perform sacrifices, but Sudras were still forbidden. In the ancient Mimamsa philosophy the experience of happiness in heaven was the ultimate goal.
Mimamsa is based on the revelation in the Vedas, which are considered as eternal as the world. The metaphysics of this ethics even comes close to replacing God as the source of all action that governs the universe. Essentially everything is determined by character (dharma) or lack of it through the law of karma or action with its consequences. Not only is the soul as the agent of action real, but the action itself is a spiritual reality that transcends space and time, determining the nature of the universe. This unseen force is called apurva, which means something new, extraordinary, or unknown.
Thus dharma or action (karma) supports the universe. If it is ethically right, it produces enjoyment; if it is wrong, then suffering is experienced. This force (shakti) of dharma or karma is extraordinary and unseen. The universe, being eternal, is not created by this force, but it is shaped by it. A unity to this universal force is posited to control and guide individuals in a single cosmic harmony.
Yet humans are free and determine their own destiny by their actions. The karma from past actions does not limit free choices but is like capital that can be spent in various ways as it is resolved. The soul usually carries a mixture of good and evil consequences, and these may cancel each other. Obligations are actions which must be performed, or one gets demerit, though there is no merit for doing them. Prohibited actions if done also cause demerit, but if avoided likewise do not give merit. Optional actions may produce merit or demerit according to their consequences. Focusing primarily on the spiritual effects of rituals, the Mimamsa philosophy relies on the Dharma Sutras for guidance in worldly ethical questions.
The Vedanta school complements Mimamsa's focus on the Vedas and sacrifices by illuminating the knowledge of the Upanishads as the "end of the Vedas," which is what Vedanta means. The Vedanta Sutra, written between the 500 and 200 BC by Badarayana, is also called the Brahma Sutra since it discusses knowledge of Brahman (Spirit) and sometimes Shariraka Sutra because it concerns the embodiment of the unconditioned self. The Vedanta Sutra attempts to clarify the meaning of the Upanishads and is rather terse, but it has been made famous by the commentaries written by the great Vedanta philosophers of the middle ages - Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva.
If the way of action derives from the Mimamsa theory of karma, Vedanta suggests a way of knowledge by the soul of Spirit. The first chapter of the Vedanta Sutra describes Brahman as the central reality and creator of the world and the individual souls. The second chapter answers objections and explains the world's dependence on God and its evolution back into Brahman. The third chapter suggests ways of knowing Brahman, and the fourth chapter indicates the rewards or fruits of knowing this Spirit.
Badarayana is traditional in that he believed knowledge comes from scripture (sruti) and other authorities (smriti), though sruti as revelation is identified with perception and smriti as interpretation with inference. Scripture refers to the Vedas and smriti to the Bhagavad-Gita, Mahabharata, and Laws of Manu. Reason for Badarayana must conform to the Vedas, but it is nonetheless subordinate to intuitive knowledge, which can come from devotion and meditation. Brahman as Spirit is considered the light of the soul, which is also eternal, though Brahman is distinguished from the intelligent soul and the unintelligent material things.
As in Mimamsa individuals are responsible for their own actions and thus determine their own happiness or suffering. The soul is affected by pleasure and pain, but the highest Lord is not. Injunctions and prohibitions exist because of the connection of the soul with the body. Ethical action helps the soul attain a body fit for knowledge of Brahman, which then may be attained through service, renunciation, and meditation. Meditation on the highest yields unity with the infinite and knowledge of Spirit (Brahman), enabling one to stop producing karma and end the cycle of karma and reincarnation.
Badarayana combined earlier views of Brahman as indeterminate intelligence and a definite personal Lord. While developing itself in the universe, Brahman is still transcendent. Though Brahman is in individual souls, it is not polluted by their defects. Human purpose comes through knowledge of Brahman, which also results in bliss and the nullification of works (karma). To obtain knowledge one must be calm and in control of the senses. Works can be combined with knowledge, but those performing them must not be overcome by passion. Knowledge may also be promoted through special acts such as prayer, devotion, and fasting. Meditation, though, should focus not on symbols of the soul but the reality. Through immobile meditation, thoughtfulness and concentration are increased, and meditation needs to be practiced up to death. By resolving karma through knowledge, oneness with Brahman is attained. At death the liberated soul is released from the body and does not return to another.
Introduction:
The word “Mimamsa” mean “Investigation, inquiry or Discussion”. It’s basically the proper way of interpretation of Vedic text, that also the earlier portion of Vedas, so it is also called Purva Mimamsa. It is also known by Dharma Mimamsa because it is an inquiry to an Dharma established by Vedas. Another name for it is Karma Mimamsa i.e. it describes the importance of sacrificial activities in attaining the pure Dharma as the good.
It is one of the school of thoughts with in Hindu Philosophy. We have other schools of thoughts with in Hindu Philosophy namely : Vedanta, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Samkhya and Yoga.
Mimamsa explain how a human being can achieve the mysterious, transcendent power produced by a correctly performed sacrificial ritual, not through the action of gods. The results of the sacrifice often come after the death of the person performing the ritual.
“Theory of Karma” is guided by Mimamsa Philosophy. “Karma” means “deeds”, “act” or “work”. Mimamsa is one of the school of thoughts with in Hinduism which gives importance to ‘theory of Karma’. This theory states that good actions produce good fruit, evil actions produce evil fruits. Every journalist seems necessary to be guided by karmayoga which holds that “when duty is performed in a spirit of dedication to god it becomes the cause of emancipation.”
“Morality, fair play, ethics and justice are the basis of karmayoga” (Bodhi pp 30). This is the evidence that why both western and eastern world have given so much importance to fair play as canon of a journalism.
Application dimension of Mimamsa Ethics:
As said by Chanakya, the practical use of Mimamsa is: it does good to mankind, makes one’s intelligence, Buddhi, settled in the midst of pleasure and pain and makes one expert, visarada, in wisdon (prajna), in speech (vakya) and in action (kriya)”. So developing a code of ethics for journalist and other media professionals based particularly on Mimamsa Philosophy seems not only rational, it also seems more practical.
Here, i claim that the present insecurity among the media professionals in Nepal, where media professionals are being attacked, would have been prevented if everybody had understood the ethics of Mimamsa and applied in their professional deeds.
Here, we can say that the (Vakya) language used in media outlet also determines the ethical standards of media. For example when a journalist is reporting about physically impaired person, using the words like ‘Andho’, ‘Bahiro’ or ‘Langado’ is unethical. Instead we can be ethical by using words like ‘Dristibihin’ for blind person.
Mimamsa will take a journalist action of exposing the name of culprit ethical if the culprit involvement in the crime is confirmed. As said earlier ‘ evil action will produce evil fruits’, culprit should be punished for his/her crime or harm deed to other. But what Unethical media do it just publish the name of the suspects and create the environment of hostility with the third party, followed by attack in the media.
Conclusion:
Hence we can maintain the ethical standards of media through the proper use of our language and action according to the Mimamsa Ethics.
Monday, March 1, 2010
journalism as social institution
An institution can be seen as a sort of ‘super-custom’, a set of mores, folkways, and patterns of behavior that deals with major social interests; law, church, and family etc. Thus, a social institution consists of all the structural components of a society through which the main concerns and activities are organized, and social needs such as those for order, belief, and reproduction are met. The current concept of institution is more fluid, for instance, as comprising changing patterns of behavior based on relatively more stable value systems.
A social institution is an organization that is critical to the socialization process; it provides a support system for individuals as they struggle to become members of a larger social network. To illustrate, day care and kindergarten teachers focus the majority of their attention on “classroom management” skills, instructing students about how to stand in line and raise their hands when they want to talk in class. Institutions contribute to the stability of a society by maintaining an ongoing presence. In that sense, institutions are often tied to tradition. Social institutions such as the church maintain formalized practices and procedures. These rules apply to governance of the institution, including issues of leadership, membership, and dismissal from the institution. An institution is a relatively self-contained social system.Within the institution is found a large variety of social roles that are linked to authority relationships. An institution such as the family invites the lifelong involvement of the individual. Although the role of an individual may change within an institution during the course of his or her lifetime (e.g., from child to parent), the institution remains the same.
Membership in a group. - Providing access to groups, people. -Unifying diverse groups of people. - Establishing a sense of order. - Helping people contend with change.- .Defining success/failure. - Defining/Affirming values.- .Establishing rules of behavior. - Providing a sense of direction/purpose. - Furnishing role models. - Educating. - .Presenting information on past, present, and future. - Offering a safe haven to exchange ideas (within limits). - Offering a buffer from society. - Controlling deviant behavior.
- Gillen and Gillen “A social institution is a functional configuration of culture pattern (including actions, ideas, attitudes and cultural equipment) which processes certain permanence and which is intended to satisfy felt social needs”
Within this time, it can be argued that the journalism have emerged as a social institution, fulfilling many of the functions that are no longer being served by traditional social institutions such as the family, church, and school. Space constraints prohibit a full consideration of the ways in which the journalism fulfills the functions of a social institution discussed above. However, much has been written about the impact of the media on the socialization process. Increasingly, people look to the media for direction with respect to values and rules of behavior. Indeed, media programs such as the James Bond films can be regarded as guidebooks, furnishing directions on the proper ways to behave (and the rewards that go with this kind of behavior). In that sense, media programs convey messages about success, as well as the best ways to get there. And despite sports commentator protestations, media figures have emerged as societal role models, epitomizing standards of success that their fans strive to emulate.
Journalism supply people with membership in groups, defined by columns they read, products they buy. A person who reads editorial and sports page forms a virtual community or market that is readily exploited by advertisers. In that sense, the journalism unify diverse groups of people. The media as a whole provide a sense of order and stability in the lives of individuals. People arrange their daily routines around media activities, such as reading the morning newspaper, watching their favorite television programs, and checking their e-mail. As a result, the media have an enormous affect on the lifestyle of a culture dictating daily activities, language, and fashion.
But although the journalism furnishes a safe place for people to discuss media, these discussions operate within limits. To illustrate, in the United States, media critics stop short of suggesting radical changes such as conversion from a private ownership system to a state-run media ownership model. In addition, journalism provides indirect access to subcultures within a country, as well as indirect contact with other countries. But at the same time, journalism also acts as a buffer from society. News papers and magazines serve as a major form of escape and distraction from the pressures of everyday life. Countries in which the media are state owned (e.g., Vietnam and China) recognize the power of the media as a social institution. These governments use the media to support the political agenda of the government. “Official” state media content is very prescriptive, telling its audience what to think and how to act. In addition, in many of these countries, regulations prohibit content in media presentations that undermines the countries’ religious and moral beliefs. The major difference between Western media and traditional social institutions is that these media have no means of controlling deviant behavior. Audiences are encouraged to consume the media wherever and whenever possible. Indeed, many media presentations depict a world without consequences, which serves to promote aberrant behavior.
The press; the media; the fourth state have long been accused of having power without responsibility. They are able to make and break careers, and frequently do: newspapers for eg boast about uncovering misdeeds and forcing politicians to resign. A slightly more measured view of this power is the role that journalism plays in developing public opinion. Journalism not only reports on events, it shapes them too: something which is perhaps most obvious in politics. The political interview is a showcase for both the politician and journalist with occasionally startling results. In any cases the role of journalist is to test the knowledge and debating skills of the interviewees, to shape the public perception of them as politicians and perhaps, to test their suitability for office. The shaping of public opinion is also key to another branch of journalism i.e. criticism. The role of the critics is to offer an informed opinion on their subjects and in order to do so they are expected to be experts intheir own right. Within each field the most respected critics have a profound influence. Shows can fail to attract audiences and close after being slated by reviewers, whereas glowing reviews can draw in audiences making careers and fortunes for performers and producers. The critics are not just there to report, they are integral to the development of their subjects. Similarly financial journalists can have significant impact on businesses not just by reporting on the actions of a company, which can affect the price of its stock but by opining on stategy and the competence of business leaders, share tipsters in particular can cause considerable movement in share prices: a real effect in the real world. Just by reporting on a subject and interviewing people, a journalist can have an effect on the real world, on real lives.
A social institution is an organization that is critical to the socialization process; it provides a support system for individuals as they struggle to become members of a larger social network. To illustrate, day care and kindergarten teachers focus the majority of their attention on “classroom management” skills, instructing students about how to stand in line and raise their hands when they want to talk in class. Institutions contribute to the stability of a society by maintaining an ongoing presence. In that sense, institutions are often tied to tradition. Social institutions such as the church maintain formalized practices and procedures. These rules apply to governance of the institution, including issues of leadership, membership, and dismissal from the institution. An institution is a relatively self-contained social system.Within the institution is found a large variety of social roles that are linked to authority relationships. An institution such as the family invites the lifelong involvement of the individual. Although the role of an individual may change within an institution during the course of his or her lifetime (e.g., from child to parent), the institution remains the same.
Membership in a group. - Providing access to groups, people. -Unifying diverse groups of people. - Establishing a sense of order. - Helping people contend with change.- .Defining success/failure. - Defining/Affirming values.- .Establishing rules of behavior. - Providing a sense of direction/purpose. - Furnishing role models. - Educating. - .Presenting information on past, present, and future. - Offering a safe haven to exchange ideas (within limits). - Offering a buffer from society. - Controlling deviant behavior.
- Gillen and Gillen “A social institution is a functional configuration of culture pattern (including actions, ideas, attitudes and cultural equipment) which processes certain permanence and which is intended to satisfy felt social needs”
Within this time, it can be argued that the journalism have emerged as a social institution, fulfilling many of the functions that are no longer being served by traditional social institutions such as the family, church, and school. Space constraints prohibit a full consideration of the ways in which the journalism fulfills the functions of a social institution discussed above. However, much has been written about the impact of the media on the socialization process. Increasingly, people look to the media for direction with respect to values and rules of behavior. Indeed, media programs such as the James Bond films can be regarded as guidebooks, furnishing directions on the proper ways to behave (and the rewards that go with this kind of behavior). In that sense, media programs convey messages about success, as well as the best ways to get there. And despite sports commentator protestations, media figures have emerged as societal role models, epitomizing standards of success that their fans strive to emulate.
Journalism supply people with membership in groups, defined by columns they read, products they buy. A person who reads editorial and sports page forms a virtual community or market that is readily exploited by advertisers. In that sense, the journalism unify diverse groups of people. The media as a whole provide a sense of order and stability in the lives of individuals. People arrange their daily routines around media activities, such as reading the morning newspaper, watching their favorite television programs, and checking their e-mail. As a result, the media have an enormous affect on the lifestyle of a culture dictating daily activities, language, and fashion.
But although the journalism furnishes a safe place for people to discuss media, these discussions operate within limits. To illustrate, in the United States, media critics stop short of suggesting radical changes such as conversion from a private ownership system to a state-run media ownership model. In addition, journalism provides indirect access to subcultures within a country, as well as indirect contact with other countries. But at the same time, journalism also acts as a buffer from society. News papers and magazines serve as a major form of escape and distraction from the pressures of everyday life. Countries in which the media are state owned (e.g., Vietnam and China) recognize the power of the media as a social institution. These governments use the media to support the political agenda of the government. “Official” state media content is very prescriptive, telling its audience what to think and how to act. In addition, in many of these countries, regulations prohibit content in media presentations that undermines the countries’ religious and moral beliefs. The major difference between Western media and traditional social institutions is that these media have no means of controlling deviant behavior. Audiences are encouraged to consume the media wherever and whenever possible. Indeed, many media presentations depict a world without consequences, which serves to promote aberrant behavior.
The press; the media; the fourth state have long been accused of having power without responsibility. They are able to make and break careers, and frequently do: newspapers for eg boast about uncovering misdeeds and forcing politicians to resign. A slightly more measured view of this power is the role that journalism plays in developing public opinion. Journalism not only reports on events, it shapes them too: something which is perhaps most obvious in politics. The political interview is a showcase for both the politician and journalist with occasionally startling results. In any cases the role of journalist is to test the knowledge and debating skills of the interviewees, to shape the public perception of them as politicians and perhaps, to test their suitability for office. The shaping of public opinion is also key to another branch of journalism i.e. criticism. The role of the critics is to offer an informed opinion on their subjects and in order to do so they are expected to be experts intheir own right. Within each field the most respected critics have a profound influence. Shows can fail to attract audiences and close after being slated by reviewers, whereas glowing reviews can draw in audiences making careers and fortunes for performers and producers. The critics are not just there to report, they are integral to the development of their subjects. Similarly financial journalists can have significant impact on businesses not just by reporting on the actions of a company, which can affect the price of its stock but by opining on stategy and the competence of business leaders, share tipsters in particular can cause considerable movement in share prices: a real effect in the real world. Just by reporting on a subject and interviewing people, a journalist can have an effect on the real world, on real lives.
Tuesday, December 15, 2009
AFRICAN MEDIA SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION:
Mass media in Africa have undergone tremendous changes in the last decade. Over the past 15 to 20 years, there has been notable progress and a significant shift towards democratization and media diversity in Africa. A UN report in 2006 states that mainstream, alternative and new forms of media, such as community and privately owned commercial media have steadily emerged and grown in numbers and diversity of opinion. The report suggests that the growth is in large part due to the space created by the shift from dictorial regimes to multiparty democracies and elections as well as the end of the cold war and internal calls for democratic reforms. In many African countries, as the new media entities have emerged, state-owned media, equally important for the public interest, has stagnated in the face of competition and diversity.
THE MEDIA SYSTEM:
For a close to a decade, the Highway Africa initiative, an annual collaboration between Rhodes University in South Africa, the private sector and development partners to showcase and promote new media, has helped engender a new breed of networked, multimedia-savvy African journalists. In recent years the digital era, and with it the convergence of new technologies with traditional/conventional media have raised critical policy questions on conventional regulatory telecommunications frameworks that lag behind new and emerging technologies. With access to new technologies and with improved bandwidth and internet infrastructure, ordinary citizens can bypass the hurdles of access to frequencies and licenses by appropriating digital or video cameras and audio players to publish, podcast, vodcast or stream stories on independent internet blogs. The digital age and the rapid development of the Internet have also challenged the traditional definition of journalism, forcing the mainstream or mass media to adapt or face extinction. Citizen journalism, including the generation of news content and analysis by individuals and independent groups of citizens worldwide, is an important dimension of this emerging phenomenon. Of all the media, newspapers remain the most combative and aggressive in their efforts to develop editorial independence, open up the society, and make themselves relevant.
A number of challenges stand in the way of a strong media sector in Africa. Sustainability emerges as an overarching concern common to all media actors, irrespective of type. Of particular concern is financial sustainability. In many African countries the market for commercial media products is thin, manifested by a weak subscription and advertiser base. Where such markets do exist, the concentration is overwhelmingly urban and to a lesser extent peri-urban. Rural dwellers must rely largely on alternative and community-focused media, where they exist. There is an overall deficit of investment. Media owners and entrepreneurs have little or no dedicated means of support, as a result of which media is unevenly developed, within and across countries. In the short term, consistent and coherent financing is required to address this concern. A longer-term challenge is how to graduate from reliance on donor funding, to full sustainability. Press freedom remains a significant challenge. The collapse of the state monopoly on media in the 1990s notwithstanding, the growth of independent media has been circumscribed by state efforts to claw back power. In many countries, journalists and communicators are not allowed to operate freely, and intimidation and censorship remain the order of the day. The spectre of journalists threatened, jailed and even killed in the course of doing their jobs remains too common a scenario. Often, economic imperatives and political alignments make nonsense of the media’s role as a guardian of the public sphere. Some state-controlled media continue to serve as propagandists, ensuring that only prescribed messages are released. The same phenomenon of crowding out space applies to the private media, with concentration of media ownership threatening pluralism. Moreover, the dearth of public media in Africa raises concern that serving the public interest rests solely on the shoulders of state and private media, both of which have overriding concerns – such as serving ruling elites and ensuring financial sustainability.
Capacity and standards are also identified as a major concern. In recent decades, donors have supported media training aimed at individuals and, to a lesser extent, organizations. However, the conventional wisdom is that such training has been piecemeal, small-scale and inimical to institution-building of the kind that is needed to sustain media as a sector. Producing content of a consistently high quality that is accurate and reliable requires a stronger configuration of training providers and a clear vision as to how to develop media capacity in different countries and subregions, all with their own specific characteristics and realities. Media management and entrepreneurial skills, as well as skills to strengthen media representation, also need to be developed with the same holistic approach in mind.
The emergence and development of Information and Communication technologies and especially the Internet has brought in its wake hope of increased exchanges between people geographically separated, dreams of economic prosperity, a new sense of interconnectedness and the optimistic belief in development and change even in the lives of Africans.
Mass media in Africa have undergone tremendous changes in the last decade. The monopoly by government has been broken. Radio and television are improving and are gradually becoming powerful instruments for public information and education. However, despite progress made, mass media in Africa remains constrained by acute problems including a lack of financial, human and material resources. These constraints could have a profound impact on the possibility of the African media to create public spheres for democratic participation.
Today’s Africa’s media picture is mixed. On one hand there is the example of South Africa whose largely professional media is of a high standard. On the other hand countries like Zimbabwe, Equatorial Guinea and Eritrea have taken deliberate steps to limit all media scrutiny, reportedly “expelling foreign journalists, banning international human rights groups, and trying to control Internet access”. Rwanda, Gabon and Ethiopia have demonstrated similar tendencies. At the same time, security remains a major issue for journalists working in countries like Somalia, the Central African Republic (CAR), Nigeria, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), although statistically journalists in Africa are less at risk than those working in the Middle East and Latin America.
The fact is that the dream of a robust, independent, indigenous continent-wide African mass media is still far from becoming reality. There have been signs of improvement, and some commentators have perceived real and lasting change, suggesting, for example, that “what was once a media desert has become a landscape flourishing with newspapers, radio and TV stations”. Many national governments have demonstrated reluctance to allow the development of an effective “fourth estate”. Other concerns persist. For example, even where African television stations are relatively free of political interference, they typically use very little local material; other than clumsily-produced news and some entertainment programming, conspicuous dependence on Western programming is common. Funding also remains a key issue for many media outlets in Africa; failure rates for financial reasons are high. In the realm of indigenous Pan-African media, pickings are slim.
Mass media in Africa have undergone tremendous changes in the last decade. Over the past 15 to 20 years, there has been notable progress and a significant shift towards democratization and media diversity in Africa. A UN report in 2006 states that mainstream, alternative and new forms of media, such as community and privately owned commercial media have steadily emerged and grown in numbers and diversity of opinion. The report suggests that the growth is in large part due to the space created by the shift from dictorial regimes to multiparty democracies and elections as well as the end of the cold war and internal calls for democratic reforms. In many African countries, as the new media entities have emerged, state-owned media, equally important for the public interest, has stagnated in the face of competition and diversity.
THE MEDIA SYSTEM:
For a close to a decade, the Highway Africa initiative, an annual collaboration between Rhodes University in South Africa, the private sector and development partners to showcase and promote new media, has helped engender a new breed of networked, multimedia-savvy African journalists. In recent years the digital era, and with it the convergence of new technologies with traditional/conventional media have raised critical policy questions on conventional regulatory telecommunications frameworks that lag behind new and emerging technologies. With access to new technologies and with improved bandwidth and internet infrastructure, ordinary citizens can bypass the hurdles of access to frequencies and licenses by appropriating digital or video cameras and audio players to publish, podcast, vodcast or stream stories on independent internet blogs. The digital age and the rapid development of the Internet have also challenged the traditional definition of journalism, forcing the mainstream or mass media to adapt or face extinction. Citizen journalism, including the generation of news content and analysis by individuals and independent groups of citizens worldwide, is an important dimension of this emerging phenomenon. Of all the media, newspapers remain the most combative and aggressive in their efforts to develop editorial independence, open up the society, and make themselves relevant.
A number of challenges stand in the way of a strong media sector in Africa. Sustainability emerges as an overarching concern common to all media actors, irrespective of type. Of particular concern is financial sustainability. In many African countries the market for commercial media products is thin, manifested by a weak subscription and advertiser base. Where such markets do exist, the concentration is overwhelmingly urban and to a lesser extent peri-urban. Rural dwellers must rely largely on alternative and community-focused media, where they exist. There is an overall deficit of investment. Media owners and entrepreneurs have little or no dedicated means of support, as a result of which media is unevenly developed, within and across countries. In the short term, consistent and coherent financing is required to address this concern. A longer-term challenge is how to graduate from reliance on donor funding, to full sustainability. Press freedom remains a significant challenge. The collapse of the state monopoly on media in the 1990s notwithstanding, the growth of independent media has been circumscribed by state efforts to claw back power. In many countries, journalists and communicators are not allowed to operate freely, and intimidation and censorship remain the order of the day. The spectre of journalists threatened, jailed and even killed in the course of doing their jobs remains too common a scenario. Often, economic imperatives and political alignments make nonsense of the media’s role as a guardian of the public sphere. Some state-controlled media continue to serve as propagandists, ensuring that only prescribed messages are released. The same phenomenon of crowding out space applies to the private media, with concentration of media ownership threatening pluralism. Moreover, the dearth of public media in Africa raises concern that serving the public interest rests solely on the shoulders of state and private media, both of which have overriding concerns – such as serving ruling elites and ensuring financial sustainability.
Capacity and standards are also identified as a major concern. In recent decades, donors have supported media training aimed at individuals and, to a lesser extent, organizations. However, the conventional wisdom is that such training has been piecemeal, small-scale and inimical to institution-building of the kind that is needed to sustain media as a sector. Producing content of a consistently high quality that is accurate and reliable requires a stronger configuration of training providers and a clear vision as to how to develop media capacity in different countries and subregions, all with their own specific characteristics and realities. Media management and entrepreneurial skills, as well as skills to strengthen media representation, also need to be developed with the same holistic approach in mind.
The emergence and development of Information and Communication technologies and especially the Internet has brought in its wake hope of increased exchanges between people geographically separated, dreams of economic prosperity, a new sense of interconnectedness and the optimistic belief in development and change even in the lives of Africans.
Mass media in Africa have undergone tremendous changes in the last decade. The monopoly by government has been broken. Radio and television are improving and are gradually becoming powerful instruments for public information and education. However, despite progress made, mass media in Africa remains constrained by acute problems including a lack of financial, human and material resources. These constraints could have a profound impact on the possibility of the African media to create public spheres for democratic participation.
Today’s Africa’s media picture is mixed. On one hand there is the example of South Africa whose largely professional media is of a high standard. On the other hand countries like Zimbabwe, Equatorial Guinea and Eritrea have taken deliberate steps to limit all media scrutiny, reportedly “expelling foreign journalists, banning international human rights groups, and trying to control Internet access”. Rwanda, Gabon and Ethiopia have demonstrated similar tendencies. At the same time, security remains a major issue for journalists working in countries like Somalia, the Central African Republic (CAR), Nigeria, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), although statistically journalists in Africa are less at risk than those working in the Middle East and Latin America.
The fact is that the dream of a robust, independent, indigenous continent-wide African mass media is still far from becoming reality. There have been signs of improvement, and some commentators have perceived real and lasting change, suggesting, for example, that “what was once a media desert has become a landscape flourishing with newspapers, radio and TV stations”. Many national governments have demonstrated reluctance to allow the development of an effective “fourth estate”. Other concerns persist. For example, even where African television stations are relatively free of political interference, they typically use very little local material; other than clumsily-produced news and some entertainment programming, conspicuous dependence on Western programming is common. Funding also remains a key issue for many media outlets in Africa; failure rates for financial reasons are high. In the realm of indigenous Pan-African media, pickings are slim.
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